Battle of Monmouth (1778): Washington’s Stand Against the British

Battle at a Glance

Historical Background

The Philadelphia Campaign of 1777

In September 1777, British forces under General Sir William Howe defeated Washington’s army at Brandywine and occupied Philadelphia. The British then repelled an American attack at Germantown in October. Although the British held the American capital, Washington’s Continental Army remained intact and continued operating in Pennsylvania.

The Winter at Valley Forge

Washington established winter quarters at Valley Forge in December 1777. His soldiers suffered from shortages of food, clothing, and equipment, but the army also underwent important organizational changes.

Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben introduced a more systematic program of drill, maneuver, and battlefield discipline. The training improved the ability of Continental units to move and fight together.

France Enters the War

In February 1778, France signed treaties of alliance and commerce with the United States. French intervention transformed the American Revolution into a broader international conflict.

British leaders now faced threats to their possessions and naval interests beyond North America. Maintaining a large army in Philadelphia became less attractive.

Clinton Replaces Howe

General Sir Henry Clinton assumed command of British forces in North America in May 1778. He received orders to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate British military strength around New York.

Clinton faced a major logistical problem: moving thousands of soldiers, wagons, horses, artillery, camp followers, and supplies across New Jersey while Washington’s army threatened his route.

The British Evacuate Philadelphia

On June 18, 1778, British forces began leaving Philadelphia and crossing the Delaware River into New Jersey. Their ultimate destination was New York, with transportation planned from Sandy Hook.

The march was slowed by a large baggage train and the summer heat. The British traveled through the New Jersey countryside while American forces followed.

Washington’s Strategic Decision

Washington held a council of war to consider whether to attack the British army. Some officers favored caution, arguing that a major engagement could risk the army’s survival.

Washington decided to pursue and look for opportunities to strike the British rear guard or isolated elements of the marching army.

The Continental Army Leaves Valley Forge

Washington’s army crossed the Delaware into New Jersey and followed Clinton’s movements. The pursuit brought the Americans toward the British column near Monmouth Courthouse.

The Dispute Over Command

Washington assigned Major General Charles Lee to command an advance force that would attack the British rear. Lee had reservations about the operation and questioned the wisdom of committing the army to a major battle.

When Lee initially declined the assignment, Washington selected Lafayette. Lee subsequently requested command after the advance force was enlarged, and Washington granted it.

The Armies Approach Monmouth

By June 27, Clinton’s army was near Monmouth Courthouse. The British planned to resume marching early the following morning, while Washington positioned his troops to attack the rear of the British column.

The resulting engagement would test whether the Continental Army could stand against British regulars in a large open-field battle.

Commanders & Participating Forces

American Command Structure

General George Washington

Washington commanded the Continental Army and directed the pursuit of Clinton’s withdrawing forces. His arrival during Lee’s retreat was the turning point in the American response.

Rather than allow the retreat to spread through the main army, Washington ordered troops into new defensive positions and coordinated infantry and artillery resistance.

Major General Charles Lee

Lee was an experienced officer who had served in the British army before joining the American cause. He commanded the American advance force at Monmouth.

His initial attack lacked coordination, and his troops withdrew under British pressure. Lee later argued that the retreat was justified by the circumstances, but his conduct and disagreements with Washington led to a court-martial.

Major General Nathanael Greene

Greene commanded the American right. His occupation of Combs Hill provided an important artillery position overlooking British movements.

Artillery deployed on the hill could fire into British formations and threaten their flank.

Major General Lord Stirling

William Alexander, known as Lord Stirling, commanded troops on Washington’s left. His division helped maintain the American defensive line during the afternoon fighting.

Brigadier General Anthony Wayne

Wayne directed Continental infantry in some of the battle’s most intense fighting. His troops resisted British attacks in the forward positions and around the hedgerow.

Wayne’s resistance helped buy time for Washington to establish the principal defensive line.

Brigadier General Henry Knox

Knox commanded the Continental Army’s artillery. His guns supported the American infantry and engaged British batteries throughout the afternoon.

The effectiveness of American artillery at Monmouth demonstrated improvements in the army’s battlefield coordination.

British and German Command Structure

General Sir Henry Clinton

Clinton commanded the British army during its withdrawal from Philadelphia. At Monmouth, he temporarily reversed part of the marching column to confront the American advance force.

His priority was to defeat the immediate threat without endangering the baggage train or delaying the army’s movement toward New York unnecessarily.

Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis

Cornwallis directed British combat formations during the battle. His troops counterattacked Lee’s advance force and later assaulted Washington’s defensive positions.

Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen

Knyphausen commanded the British forward division and much of the baggage train. His continued movement toward Sandy Hook was essential to Clinton’s larger withdrawal plan.

The Continental Army’s Training

Many of the American soldiers at Monmouth had participated in the Valley Forge training program. Their improved ability to maneuver, hold formations, and coordinate with artillery became evident during the afternoon fighting.

Battlefield Geography & Terrain

Monmouth Courthouse

Monmouth Courthouse, present-day Freehold, was a small New Jersey settlement surrounded by farmland, roads, woods, and streams. The British army passed through the area while marching toward Sandy Hook.

The Road Network

Roads connecting Monmouth Courthouse with Englishtown and the eastern New Jersey coast were important to both armies. The British needed to maintain their route toward Sandy Hook, while the Americans approached from the west.

The British Marching Column

The British army was stretched along roads carrying infantry, artillery, cavalry, wagons, and camp followers. Its rear guard was vulnerable to attack, but the main army could reverse direction and reinforce threatened troops.

The Open Fields

Large cultivated fields provided room for infantry formations and artillery. They also exposed troops to cannon fire and musket volleys.

Marshes and Ravines

Several streams and ravines crossed the battlefield. These obstacles complicated troop movement and made it difficult for commanders to maintain contact between separated formations.

Spotswood Middle Brook

The stream and its associated ravine formed an important obstacle during the retreat of Lee’s advance force. American troops had to cross difficult ground while British soldiers pursued.

The Hedgerow

A prominent hedgerow and associated farm boundaries provided cover for American infantry. Wayne’s troops fought a delaying action in this area before withdrawing to Washington’s main line.

Perrine Ridge

Perrine Ridge became the principal American defensive position during the afternoon. Its elevated ground provided favorable artillery positions and allowed Washington to organize a coherent line.

Combs Hill

Combs Hill stood on the American right and overlooked portions of the British battlefield. Greene occupied the position and placed artillery where it could threaten British troops from the flank.

The East Ravine

The ravine east of the main American position complicated British assaults and helped protect portions of Washington’s line.

The Battlefield Today

Much of the principal battlefield is preserved within Monmouth Battlefield State Park in Manalapan and Freehold townships, New Jersey.

The park contains historical interpretation, preserved landscapes, and trails associated with the battle’s principal phases.

Weapons, Equipment & Logistics

Continental Infantry Weapons

American infantry carried smoothbore muskets and bayonets. Equipment varied among regiments, but the army’s improved training allowed soldiers to deliver coordinated volleys and maintain formations under pressure.

British Infantry Weapons

British regulars used standardized military muskets and bayonets. Their experience in coordinated attacks and close combat made them formidable opponents.

Continental Artillery

American field artillery included several calibers of cannon deployed to support the infantry. Knox coordinated batteries along the defensive line, while Greene’s position on Combs Hill provided additional flanking fire.

British Artillery

British guns supported the counterattack and exchanged fire with American batteries. Artillery was particularly effective in the open fields surrounding Monmouth Courthouse.

Artillery Ammunition

Both armies used solid shot and other ammunition appropriate to field artillery. Cannon fire could disrupt formations, damage equipment, and force infantry to seek cover.

The British Baggage Train

Clinton’s army carried extensive baggage, supplies, artillery equipment, and civilian camp followers. Protecting this train was one of the central reasons for maintaining a strong rear guard.

American Supply Lines

Washington’s army operated away from its principal depots while pursuing the British. Ammunition, food, and water had to be distributed during a rapid campaign.

Water and Extreme Heat

The June heat created severe difficulties for both armies. Soldiers marched and fought in heavy uniforms while carrying weapons, ammunition, and equipment.

Water was essential, and men collapsed from heat and exhaustion during the battle.

Horses and Artillery Movement

Moving cannon across uneven ground required teams of horses and trained artillery crews. Ravines and stream crossings slowed deployment and complicated efforts to reposition guns.

Medical Care

Wounded soldiers were treated by regimental surgeons and medical personnel. The heat, limited water, and large numbers of casualties placed additional strain on battlefield medical services.

Intelligence & Operational Planning

Washington’s Intelligence Network

Washington used cavalry patrols, scouts, militia reports, and local information to track Clinton’s movement across New Jersey. The British army’s large baggage train made its general direction relatively easy to follow, although the disposition of individual formations was less certain.

The British Withdrawal Plan

Clinton divided his army into marching elements. Knyphausen moved ahead with much of the baggage, while Clinton retained combat troops capable of protecting the rear.

Washington’s Council of War

Washington consulted his officers about attacking the British. Charles Lee expressed strong reservations, while other officers favored a more aggressive approach.

Washington ultimately decided to strike if a favorable opportunity appeared.

The Advance Force

Washington assembled a forward detachment to attack the British rear. Lee received command of the enlarged force and was expected to engage the enemy while the main army approached.

The Initial American Plan

Lee’s troops were to attack the British rear guard and exploit any confusion created by the British withdrawal. The operation required coordination among several brigades moving across unfamiliar ground.

The British Detect the Threat

Clinton learned that American troops were approaching his rear. He turned substantial forces back toward Monmouth Courthouse and prepared to counterattack.

Lee’s Command Difficulties

Lee’s formations advanced along different routes and encountered changing British dispositions. Conflicting information, limited reconnaissance, and inadequate coordination prevented a unified attack.

The American Retreat

As British troops advanced, American formations began withdrawing. Some officers believed they were being outflanked, while others received orders that did not clearly explain the overall situation.

Washington Arrives

Washington encountered retreating soldiers and demanded an explanation from Lee. He then moved forward to assess the British threat and began reorganizing the army.

The New Defensive Line

Washington directed troops to occupy positions along Perrine Ridge and nearby ground. Artillery was placed to cover the approaches, and infantry formed a line capable of resisting British assaults.

The British Afternoon Attacks

Clinton and Cornwallis attempted to break the American line through infantry attacks supported by artillery. The Americans held their positions and inflicted losses on the advancing troops.

Clinton’s Final Decision

As the fighting continued and daylight declined, Clinton determined that further attacks were unlikely to achieve a decisive result. He withdrew his troops during the night and resumed the march toward Sandy Hook.

Battle of Monmouth: Interactive Timeline

Tactical Analysis & Command Decisions

Phase One: Washington Targets the British Rear

Washington hoped to strike Clinton’s army while it was stretched along the roads toward Sandy Hook. The British baggage train made the column vulnerable to attacks against its rear.

Phase Two: Lee Advances Without a Unified Attack

Lee’s advance force moved toward Monmouth Courthouse but encountered difficulties coordinating separate brigades. Some units advanced while others remained uncertain of their orders.

Phase Three: Clinton Reverses His Troops

Clinton responded by turning substantial combat forces back toward the Americans. British regulars advanced against Lee’s formations and threatened their flanks.

Phase Four: Lee’s Retreat

Lee’s troops began withdrawing as the British counterattack developed. The retreat was not necessarily a single uncontrolled rout, but poor communication and the absence of a clearly coordinated plan caused significant confusion.

Phase Five: Washington Intervenes

Washington encountered the retreating troops and demanded an explanation from Lee. He quickly assessed the situation and began directing soldiers into a new defensive line.

Phase Six: The Forward Delaying Action

Wayne and other American officers held positions that slowed the British advance. Their resistance allowed the main army time to deploy.

Phase Seven: Perrine Ridge Becomes the Main Position

Washington established his defensive line on elevated ground. The position offered favorable artillery fields of fire and forced British troops to approach across difficult terrain.

Phase Eight: Greene Secures Combs Hill

Greene occupied the American right and placed artillery on Combs Hill. This position threatened British troops with flanking fire and strengthened Washington’s defense.

Phase Nine: British Infantry Attacks

British regulars attempted to break the American line through repeated assaults. Continental troops maintained their formations and delivered coordinated musket and artillery fire.

Phase Ten: The Artillery Contest

American and British batteries exchanged fire throughout the afternoon. Knox’s guns and the artillery on Combs Hill helped prevent the British from advancing against Washington’s position.

Phase Eleven: The British Offensive Loses Momentum

Heat, casualties, difficult terrain, and determined American resistance reduced the effectiveness of the British attacks. Clinton was unable to achieve a decisive breakthrough.

Phase Twelve: Clinton Withdraws

With the British army’s larger movement still underway, Clinton chose not to renew the battle the following morning. His troops withdrew during the night.

Why Lee’s Initial Attack Failed

The advance force lacked a unified tactical plan and adequate coordination. British counterattacks developed rapidly, and Lee struggled to maintain control over separated formations.

Why Washington’s Defense Succeeded

Washington restored command cohesion, used elevated ground effectively, placed artillery in strong positions, and relied on Continental infantry capable of maintaining formation under sustained attack.

Why the British Were Not Destroyed

Clinton retained an organized army and a viable route toward Sandy Hook. The Americans could prevent a British breakthrough but could not compel the British to remain and fight another day.

The Soldier’s Experience

Marching Across New Jersey

Continental soldiers pursued the British through the New Jersey countryside during late June. The movement required long marches while carrying muskets, ammunition, blankets, and personal equipment.

The Heat of June 28

The battle took place during extreme summer heat. Soldiers wore wool uniforms and carried heavy equipment while moving across open fields with limited shade.

Water Shortages

Men required water throughout the day, but access was limited during combat. Soldiers and support personnel carried water to the firing lines when possible.

The Morning Confusion

American soldiers in Lee’s advance force encountered British troops while receiving conflicting or incomplete orders. Some units began retreating without understanding the situation elsewhere on the battlefield.

The Retreat Across Ravines

Soldiers withdrew across uneven ground and stream crossings while British infantry and artillery pursued. Maintaining formation under these conditions was difficult.

Washington’s Arrival

Washington’s appearance helped restore confidence among the retreating troops. Soldiers were directed into new formations and prepared to resist the advancing British.

Holding the Defensive Line

Continental infantry stood in formation under musket and cannon fire. The soldiers had to reload, maintain their ranks, and follow officers’ commands despite casualties and exhaustion.

Artillery Crews

Artillerymen worked in the heat to load, aim, and fire cannon. Crews had to move ammunition, manage recoil, and reposition guns while exposed to enemy fire.

The Molly Pitcher Tradition

The story of Molly Pitcher describes a woman carrying water to soldiers and assisting an artillery crew after a gunner became incapacitated. Mary Ludwig Hays is commonly associated with the tradition, although the familiar narrative developed through later accounts.

Women accompanied Revolutionary armies as camp followers and performed essential labor, including cooking, washing, nursing, and carrying water. Some were present near battlefields, but the precise actions attributed to Molly Pitcher cannot all be established from contemporary evidence.

Heat Exhaustion

Both armies suffered from heat-related illness. Men collapsed during marches, artillery service, and infantry combat. Some died from the combined effects of heat and exertion.

Care for the Wounded

Surgeons and medical attendants treated wounded soldiers after the fighting. Evacuating casualties across ravines and fields was difficult, especially in the heat.

The Night After the Battle

American soldiers remained near their positions expecting that fighting might resume. During the night, the British withdrew, leaving the Americans in possession of much of the battlefield.

Where Was Your Ancestor’s Unit?

Monmouth is one of the most valuable Revolutionary War engagements for identifying Continental Army participation because a large portion of Washington’s army was present. However, a soldier’s regiment being assigned to the army does not automatically establish that the individual fought in the principal engagement on June 28.

Principal Research Groups

Lee’s Advance Force

Lee’s command included Continental brigades assigned to strike the British rear. Researchers should examine the army’s June 1778 returns and the testimony from Lee’s court-martial to identify the formations present.

Anthony Wayne’s Command

Wayne’s troops participated in important fighting during the initial engagement and the subsequent delaying action. Individual soldiers may appear in Pennsylvania Line records and pension applications describing the retreat and defensive stand.

Nathanael Greene’s Division

Greene’s troops occupied the American right. Soldiers associated with Combs Hill may have served in infantry formations or artillery batteries deployed to cover the British flank.

Lord Stirling’s Division

Stirling’s command formed part of the main American defensive line. Researchers should identify the specific brigade and regiment before assigning a soldier to a battlefield position.

Henry Knox’s Artillery

Artillerymen may have served in batteries on Perrine Ridge, Combs Hill, or other positions. Artillery company records are necessary to establish the location of individual crews.

The New Jersey Line

New Jersey Continental troops participated in the campaign and battle. Their service can be researched through state military records, Continental muster rolls, and Revolutionary War pension files.

The Pennsylvania Line

Pennsylvania soldiers served in several formations during the battle. Researchers should distinguish the troops fighting under Wayne from other Pennsylvania regiments assigned to Washington’s army.

New England Regiments

Continental regiments from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and other states served in the army. Their participation should be established through brigade assignments and contemporary returns.

British Regular Regiments

British infantry formations fought during the counterattack and afternoon assaults. Regimental records may identify officers and casualties, but the presence of a regiment does not establish that every soldier fought in every phase.

German Auxiliary Troops

German units accompanied Clinton’s army during the withdrawal. Their records may survive in German military archives and published troop journals.

Revolutionary War Pension Applications

American veterans may describe the engagement as Monmouth, Monmouth Courthouse, Freehold, or the battle fought during the British evacuation of Philadelphia.

Pension narratives may identify commanding officers, battlefield movements, wounds, or the extreme heat.

The Charles Lee Court-Martial

Testimony from Lee’s court-martial provides unusually detailed evidence concerning the movements of American officers and formations during the initial battle.

It is especially valuable for reconstructing the actions of Lee’s advance force, although witnesses sometimes disagreed about the sequence of events.

Common Research Errors

Do not assume every soldier who served at Valley Forge fought at Monmouth.

Do not treat the entire Continental Army as simultaneously engaged.

Do not assign every Pennsylvania soldier to Anthony Wayne’s immediate command.

Do not confuse the initial fighting under Lee with Washington’s later defensive line.

Do not assume every British regiment accompanied Clinton’s rear guard rather than Knyphausen’s forward column.

Do not treat the Molly Pitcher tradition as a verified account of every action attributed to Mary Ludwig Hays.

Do not add all reported heat deaths to combat casualty totals without examining the underlying records.

Battle Outcome & Casualties

An Inconclusive Tactical Result

Neither army achieved a decisive victory. The British defeated Lee’s initial attack and forced his troops to retreat, but Washington established a defensive line that the British failed to break.

American Possession of the Battlefield

After Clinton withdrew during the night, Washington’s army remained in possession of the principal battlefield. This allowed Americans to claim a defensive success.

British Strategic Withdrawal

Clinton preserved his army and continued toward Sandy Hook. The British ultimately reached New York, accomplishing the larger purpose of the evacuation.

American Casualties

American returns commonly report approximately 69 killed, 161 wounded, and 132 missing, although other tabulations differ. Some missing soldiers later returned, while others were captured or deserted.

British Casualties

British returns commonly report approximately 65 killed, 170 wounded, and 64 missing. Other estimates include additional losses and desertions during the campaign.

Heat-Related Deaths

The extreme heat caused soldiers on both sides to collapse. Contemporary and later accounts describe numerous deaths from heat, but the figures vary and are not always clearly separated from combat losses.

The Limits of Casualty Comparisons

Casualty returns were compiled under different circumstances and may not include the same categories of losses. Missing soldiers, deserters, heat-related deaths, and men who died later from wounds complicate direct comparison.

Why Monmouth Was Not a Decisive Victory

The British did not destroy Washington’s army, and the Americans did not prevent Clinton from reaching New York. The engagement therefore produced important military and political consequences without fundamentally changing the immediate strategic situation.

Strategic Aftermath

The British Reach New York

Clinton’s army continued toward Sandy Hook and completed its movement to New York. The British evacuation of Philadelphia ended their occupation of the city.

Washington’s Army Gains Confidence

Monmouth demonstrated that Continental soldiers could maintain formation and resist British regulars during a prolonged field engagement. The battle provided evidence that the Valley Forge training program had improved the army’s effectiveness.

Washington’s Leadership

Washington’s intervention during Lee’s retreat became one of the defining moments of his military career. His ability to reorganize the army and establish a defensive line prevented the initial setback from becoming a larger defeat.

The Charles Lee Controversy

Lee disputed Washington’s criticism of his conduct and defended his decisions during the initial engagement. Their disagreement escalated into formal charges.

A court-martial found Lee guilty of misconduct connected with the retreat and disrespect toward Washington. He was suspended from command.

The Molly Pitcher Legend

The story of Molly Pitcher became one of the best-known traditions associated with the battle. Mary Ludwig Hays is commonly identified with the figure, but historians distinguish documented evidence of women’s participation in military support from later embellishments of the legend.

The Franco-American Alliance

Monmouth occurred as French intervention was changing the strategic direction of the war. The British withdrawal from Philadelphia reflected the need to concentrate military resources for a wider conflict.

The War Moves Beyond Philadelphia

After Monmouth, major British operations increasingly focused on New York and other theaters. The Philadelphia Campaign had ended without destroying Washington’s army or securing lasting British control over Pennsylvania.

Monmouth’s Military Legacy

The battle became an important example of the Continental Army’s development from a force struggling with coordination into one capable of sustained conventional combat.

Preservation of the Battlefield

Monmouth Battlefield State Park preserves significant portions of the battlefield. The landscape provides opportunities to study the positions occupied by Washington, Lee, Greene, Wayne, and British formations.

The Battle’s Place in the Revolution

Monmouth did not determine the outcome of the war, but it strengthened American confidence and demonstrated the growing effectiveness of Washington’s army. It also ended the active pursuit of the British army evacuating Philadelphia.

Primary Sources & Historical Research

The Battle of Monmouth is extensively documented through Washington’s correspondence, British dispatches, Continental Army returns, Charles Lee’s court-martial proceedings, officer memoirs, and surviving battlefield maps. The engagement is unusually well suited to detailed tactical reconstruction, although some events remain disputed.

Primary Sources

1. George Washington, General Orders and Correspondence, June 1778. Orders concerning the pursuit, battle preparations, and subsequent military operations.
2. Charles Lee Court-Martial Proceedings, 1778. Testimony concerning the initial American attack, retreat, and Washington’s intervention.
3. Sir Henry Clinton, Official Dispatches and Correspondence, June–July 1778. British descriptions of the withdrawal and engagement.
4. Continental Army Returns, June 1778. Records of American troop strength, assignments, and casualties.
5. British Army Returns, June–July 1778. Evidence concerning British strength and reported losses.
6. Joseph Plumb Martin, A Narrative of Some of the Adventures, Dangers and Sufferings of a Revolutionary Soldier. Soldier memoir containing observations of Continental Army service and the Monmouth campaign.
7. Contemporary maps of the Battle of Monmouth. Cartographic evidence for troop movements, roads, ravines, and defensive positions.

Historical Research Resources

1. National Park Service, Battle of Monmouth. National Park Service battle history.
2. American Battlefield Trust, Battle of Monmouth. Battle history and battlefield resources.
3. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Monmouth Battlefield State Park. Official battlefield preservation site.
4. George Washington’s Mount Vernon, Battle of Monmouth. Historical analysis.
5. United States Army Center of Military History, Valley Forge to Monmouth, 1778. Military campaign study.
6. Library of Congress, Revolutionary War Maps. Historical cartographic collections.
7. National Archives, Revolutionary War Records. Military service and pension research.
8. David G. Martin, The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1778–July 1778. Modern military study covering the British evacuation and the Battle of Monmouth.
9. Mark Edward Lender and Garry Wheeler Stone, Fatal Sunday: George Washington, the Monmouth Campaign, and the Politics of Battle. Detailed modern study of the campaign, battlefield operations, and the Lee controversy.

Research Notes and Historical Cautions

Date: June 28, 1778.

Location: Monmouth Courthouse, present-day Freehold, New Jersey.

American commander: George Washington.

American advance commander: Charles Lee.

British commander: Sir Henry Clinton.

American strength: Approximately 11,000–13,000; not all simultaneously engaged.

British strength: Approximately 10,000–11,000; estimates vary.

Principal action: American advance, British counterattack, American retreat, Washington’s defensive stand, and British nighttime withdrawal.

Casualties: Approximately 350–400 on each side in commonly cited returns, with significant variation among sources.

Weather: Extreme heat and humidity.

Result: Tactically inconclusive; American defensive success; British strategic withdrawal completed.

Historical caution: Charles Lee’s conduct remains the subject of historical debate.

Historical caution: The Molly Pitcher tradition includes details that cannot be fully verified from contemporary sources.

Genealogical caution: Service in Washington’s army during June 1778 does not automatically establish direct participation in the battle.